Violation of Child Rights through Pashtun Tribals’ Socialization in Colonial and Post-Colonial Times

by Zafar Khan, Uzma Kamal & Syed Rashid Ali

Student – Lecturer Team at the Department of Sociology University of Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

drzafarkhan(@uop.edu.pk)

Anthways, 2024 © Zafar Khan, Uzma Kamal & Syed Rashid Ali

Introduction

Family is the basic and primary agent of socialization. It plays an important role in child rearing, caring for, and socializing children in light of prevailing cultural norms and social structure which might be contrary to the Convention on the Rights of Child (CRC). In Pashtun tribal society, children are exposed to the outer world through family. Parents prepare them for future roles in light of their history, experiences, and culture without keeping in view their basic rights in Pashtun tribal society. Pashtun tribal cultural norms and values might be contrary to the basic rights of children in certain cases. The Pashtun tribal cultural norms and values significantly influenced the process of socialization, and cultural norms and values influence the children’s socialization more visibly in the weak states¹ compared to strong states (Waltz, 2014). 

The British in colonial times from 1849 to 1947 adopted different administrative policies in the Pashtun tribal region and labelled the Pashtun tribal people uncivilized and wild. The British forces were ruthless when there was a threat to their interests, but were not taking interest in the social affairs of Pashtuns. Pakistan also adopted the same policies and reinforced the stereotypical understanding of the British about the Pashtun tribal people. Historically, the state institutions had not been extended to this region which increased their dependency on their family and social organizations. The government institutions do not interfere in their family matters or their personal family disputes. Pashtun is dependent on the family institute and the family protects them from outside aggression. Hence, the family as an institution takes the responsibility of the state and performs the socio-economic, political, and security functions in Pashtun tribal society (Khan, & Shah, 2021; Kakar, 2004; Khan, 2022). 

Tribal socialization inculcates masculine traits to their children. They aim that masculine and strong children can protect them and their families from the aggression of other fellow Pashtun. The vacuum created by the British in colonial (1849 to 1947) and post-colonial times (1947 to date) was filled by the family in Pashtun society².  In the absence of state institutions, Pashtun tribal people have expectations from the family. A family tries to impart socialization according to an expectation of society (Absolon, 2022; Sanauddin, 2015). It is the responsibility of the family to take revenge through the family rather than the state. Based on historical experiences, the people do not trust the state’s role in /resolving their family disputes through peaceful or violent means (Chang, Pengtao, and Xiyao, 2022; Lane, 2005). This article explores the causal factors of violent children’s socialization in Pashtun tribal society. In addition, this study explores the tribal socialization of male and female children and why Pashtun tribal people socialize children without keeping in view their global rights.  

Theoretical Framework

Keeping in view the complex nature of the tribal process of children’s socialization an eclectic approach was adopted to investigate its different cultural and structural aspects. The main research question of this essay is how the tribal mechanism of a child’s socialization affects their rights. The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (CRC, 1989) provides a theoretical framework for this research essay. According to CRC, children should be protected from all forms of physical and mental violence, and gender discrimination.  I believe that tribal socialization violates the rights of the children as I will detail in the following.  Moreover, the state-society interaction model describes the relationship between state and society (Sellers, 2011). It is argued that society is not a monolithic organization but a mélange of social organizations such as family clans and tribes. State and society are always competing to subdue each other. The state offers incentives such as security, prosperity, and status, or threatens with sanctions such as violence to make people adhere to a particular type of state and society. When a state does not fulfil the expectations of the people then society resists conferring authority. In a weak state, the authority lies with the social organization, particularly with the family to maintain law and order (Migdal, 1988). The strong normative order compels the family to violently socialize their children. This theory provides theoretical insight to this study because the family socializes children in ways which are locally acceptable to the family. The state’s failure to protect the Pashtun tribal people during inter-family or intra-family disputes reinforces violent socialization.

Methodology

This study follows the methodological rules and technicality required to ensure reliability and validity. Keeping in view the nature of this research and expected data, the qualitative paradigm was adopted for the completion of this study. The purposive sampling technique was used to collect data from the parents whose children fall into the age category of 5 to 18 and also from their grandfathers. Through ethnographic research design, the primary data was also collected through participant observation and in-depth interviews. I conducted six months of fieldwork and collected data from the merged districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (previously called Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA). I conducted 50 in-depth interviews with parents whose children fall into the age category of 5 to 18 years, in an effort to understand why children are exposed to violence through tribal socialization. The data was also collected from the elders of the Pashtun tribal people to understand the cultural and structural aspects of tribal socialization. Themes are analyzed in the light of primary data and theoretical framework to link them with the broader literature on the issue at hand.  

Theorizing Tribal Socialization of Children in Pashtun Society

The socialization of children is embedded in local culture and traditions across tribal and traditional societies (Hogan and Liddell, 2023). Socialization is a complex life-learning process and history, culture, and political structure have a significant influence on it (Fung, 2006). Family and state both are the basic agents of socialization. However, developed states also share the responsibility of the socialization of children with family (Wendt, and Barnett, 1993). The state also keeps a check on family institutions to socialize their children and does not permit corporal punishment which violates the rights of children.  According to the CRC, it is the prime responsibility of states to protect the rights of children. However, states may not take an interest in interfering in family affairs in tribal societies and allow families to socialize children according to their local cultural values and traditions. States only protect their vested interest in tribal regions. Rather control violence until and unless it is not a threat to their interest.   

Pashtun as a tribal ethnic group depends on family institutions for their needs and resources (as discussed above). Historically, in colonial post-colonial periods, both British and Pakistan took little interest in their family affairs or protect them from the violence of fellow Pashtun. The British in the colonial era and Pakistan in the post-colonial exploited their natural resources and manipulated culture in ways that suited their interest. The British regime and also Pakistan were/are not interested in evolving their socio-cultural institutions or positively utilising state authority. Pashtuns have a fear of hunger and threats from outsiders and also from fellow Pashtuns; therefore, they make their family ties stronger. Families act as a state for their members and mothers feel proud of their sons who possess masculine traits in Pashtun tribal society. Socialization of children in Pashtun society not only imposes masculinity over the male children but also intersects women’s marginality in Pashtun tribal society (Stevenson, 2019; Jamal, 2014). For instance, masculinity and patriarchy further increase the gender gap that intersects women’s marginality.

In Pashtun tribal society, the family institution has a monopoly over the use of violence if it is not against the state. Pashtun in family disputes attack on each other and these disputes cannot affect the interest of the British in the colonial era. The British stigmatized them as wild people based on their family disputes. British in this way tried to legitimise their undemocratic and draconian colonial laws in this region.  The presence of these states reinforces tribal socialization in which children are more exposed to violence as compared to strong democratic states (Cole, Tamang, and Shrestha, 2006). Cultural norms, violent discipline, exposure to violence, and violent communication collectively influence the tribal socialization of children in Pashtun society. This violent familial socialization involves harsh discipline based on Pashtun culture and parents’ “failure to recognize violence as deviant behavior. Harsh discipline based on Pashtun is violation of CRC (Shah, Ullah, & Khan,2022). This is not only parents” failure to recognize violent behavior as deviant behavior of children but it was also the failure of both British in colonial and Pakistan failures in the post-colonial period to reduce the burden on the family in Pashtun tribal society (Kakar, & Shah, 2023). Violent socialization is reinforced by state policies in this region and parents in Pashtun tribal society do not recognize violent socialization as a violation of children’s rights. It is culturally recourse and in line with the tribal norms. 

Cultural norms are considered the collective property of a group or society. Cultural norms define, and regulate the behavior of the people and maintain social order in Pashtun tribal society in the absence of state institutions (Rzehak, 2011). Pashtun tribal people define differently the phenomena of violence, deviance, and conformity. In certain cases, it is contrary to the discourse of child rights. For example, corporal punishment is culturally acceptable in Pashtun tribal society but it is a violation of CRC (Hussain, Naz,  Khan,  Daraz,  Khan, 2015). Corporal punishment and violent communication are culturally acceptable and in line with the cultural norms of Pashtun tribal society (Wakil, Siddique, and Wakil, 1981). The Pashtun tribal society has in certain cases monopoly over the use of violence and state organizations are less effective or the state does not want to control intra-family violence; hence, they need to socialize their children according to their socio-cultural requirements to survive in tribal setting (Posada, and Wainryb, 2008).  

Culture, social structure, state and illiteracy collectively expose male children at an early age to violence. Its become a normative part of Pashtun culture and parents do not recognise it is against the rights of children. Child exposure to violence is not culturally discouraged in Pashtun tribal society. They are doing this by keeping in view their family disputes and social structure. The absence of state institutions compels Pashtuns to resolve their family disputes through Jirga³ or violent means. Family disputes frequently occur among families, sub-clan, or tribes. They need males to protect their property or family from outside aggression. Therefore, they celebrate the birth of male children to protect the property of the family. It is the Pashtu proverb “zaman the da plar mati de” which means only male children have the strength of the parents rather than female children, a cultural understanding which negatively affects the socialization of children and also violates their rights. Pashtun culturally defined masculinity violate the right of both male and female children. It increase burden on male children and increase gender gap. The family takes the burden of the state because in colonial times the British and in post-colonial times Pakistan deliberately reinforced the oppressive tribal norms for their political interests in this region. The British distorted the tribal values, adopted different policies in this region, and labeled the tribal as wild and uncivilized people (Yousaf, 2019).

State versus Family Functions: Socialization of Children in Pashtun Tribal Society

State and family are the basic agents of socialization. Historically and also in the present time, families in Pashtun society take the responsibilities of the state. However, strong state institutions often reduce the responsibilities of the family such as the provision of economic opportunities and public and private security for an individual (Chickering, Haley, 2007).  The British in colonial and Pakistan in the post-colonial period failed to reduce the responsibilities of the family and, simultaneously, the people did not trust state institutions compared to family.  It is found in the field that most of the people get socio-economic support from their families rather than from the state in Pashtun tribal society. One respondent stated that⁴:

Family disputes frequently occur in Pashtun society and the state does not take the responsibility to protect us from outside aggression. Male members of the family have the responsibility to give you support and protect you from outside aggression. Therefore, Pashtun tribal people socialize with male children to protect themselves from outside aggression during family disputes (Jan, Personal communication, February 10, 2023). 

The British and Pakistan as powerful states exploited their resources but did not extend state institutions to provide social services and resolve their family disputes in the Pashtun tribal society. They imposed collective human punishment under Frontier Crime Regulation (FCR). This law manipulated the tribal customs and created further polarization in family disputes among the tribal people. The British and Pakistan policies in this region created mistrust among the tribal which further increased their dependency on family institutions. Colonial and post-colonial policies created mistrust on the state institutions (Mallick, 2020).They are emotionally, economically and socially dependent on family institutions. Due to repressive policies of colonial British regime and Pakistan in post-colonial period they prefer their cultural institutions over state institutions. The British and Pakistan deliberately depicted them as marshal and violent race to justified repressive policies in this region. Pashtun depiction as a violent ethnic group in colonial and also in post-colonial literature distorted Pashtun’s cultural identity.  The British regime legitimized collective punishment in this way to depict them in literature as violent ethnic group. initiated in colonial times strengthened the collective structure in Pashtun tribal society (Zahab, 2016).

Pashtun have strong kinship ties and live in extended families. They need strong kinship ties because their kin protects them from outside aggression and also supports them economically in hard times. They reciprocally support each other in family disputes due to the least interest of the state (Serpell, 2014). The family needs children who are ready to protect the family from outside aggression of fellow Pashtun.  One respondent stated that:

We have a strong kinship and family bonds that give us all kinds of help. Kinship (Rishtadaar) gives us an immediate response in the time of disputes. Our family members give an immediate response when we need their support. Family is more important to me as compared to the state. Therefore, Pashtun tribal people socialize their children in ways to meet cultural expectations (Khan, Personal communication, February 1, 2020). 

In Pashtun tribal society, they socialize children to learn the importance of kinship ties for their survival in tribal settings. It is not appreciated in their culture if the male child learns docile behavior and their kin group laughs at those who are not fighting during the family dispute. In Pashtun tribal society, children are exposed to violence in the social structure. For instance, Pashtun are culturally bond to stand with brothers or cousins and extended during disputes. It is a social humiliation if they do not take part in disputes and do not stand with their relatives against other family or clan. In Pashtu, they use Pashtu word Poza prekawal (nose cutting) for social humiliation. They prepared to resolve their conflict through their social organizations Jirga⁶ rather than state institutions. Jirga is conducted by men who possess strong masculine traits and they have the power to implement Jirga decision. Jargaees (members of Jirga) are respectable people and they also appreciate bravery and masculine men who have courage to protect fellow Pashtun from outside aggression. In folk stories, masculinity is appreciated in Pashtun society.  Therefore, children are exposed to violence in tribal order in absence of state institutions. In this regard, one of the respondents stated that

Our children are exposed to violence inside and outside the family. Without state protection, we have expectations for the male child to come and protect us. It is culturally acceptable to inculcate masculine and violent cultural traits into the personality of a male child in Pashtun tribal society (Jan 15, 2022, individual interview). 

The state has more power as compared to the family and the state can easily resolve family disputes but the state’s least interest in family affairs affects the children’s socialization in Pashtun society. Pashtun tribal people had bad experiences with states both in the colonial and post-colonial periods. The state exploited their resources but failed to resolve their disputes or reduce poverty in the region. They trust the Lashkar (private militia) which is part of Pashtun tribal culture. When there is the threat of outside aggression every male Pashtun has the cultural responsibility to take part in it. Lashkar is not the permanent militia force and it is formed when they need it. It is culturally appreciated to take part in Lashkar in Pashtun tribal society (Miakhel, 2008). It is caused social humiliation if someone does not take part in Lashkar. In Pakhtunwali a man who shows bravery is highly appreciated  In this regard one of the respondents stated

Pashtun social organizations such as Jirga and Hujra (a place for guests) also significantly influence children's socialization in Pashtun tribal society. Only male children are allowed to sit with the elders. Children learn from the elders and these elders share stories of the colonial and post-colonial times with them. Children get socialization according to our prevailing socio-cultural environment in Hujra. Jirga usually takes place in Hujra to resolve disputes (Jan, Personal communication, February 17, 2023). 

In Pashtun tribal society, only males are allowed to participate in Jirga. Children learn this behavior through tribal socialization in Pashtun tribal society. It creates gender inequality and children learn it through tribal socialization. It is a violation of female children and also a violation of CRC. It is reflected in the Pashtu proverb and literature where they only appreciate the masculine personality traits of males and the feminine of the female. It is a violation of both male and female children because, at an early age, it increases the burden of masculinity on the male child. When the male child is crying their parents criticize him ‘you are not female do not cry’. In this regard one of the respondents stated

In the tribal socialization male children prepare for the masculine role and participation in Jirga is only allowed for males. In Pashtun tribal society, state least interest further reinforces gender inequality which violates the rights of the female child. State least intervention in their family matters further strengthens their tribal socialization in Pashtun tribal society (Asfandiyar, Personal communication, Jan 3, 2023).

Children’s socialization is the prime responsibility of both the parents and the state. However, in Pashtun tribal society the state takes the least interest and they are bound to family institutions. Pashtun tribal society has not evolved smoothly into a state society. They were exploited both in the colonial and post-colonial periods and their evolution from tribal to state society has been slowed down by state policies in this region. They are not aware of the rights of children indicated in CRC. The people of this region have negative experiences with states in both colonial and post-colonial times. The state institutions have lost trust in this region which makes family institutions stronger than the state in the socialization of children. Moreover, the state also needs children. They are more susceptible to violence in this region therefore the state deliberately ignored the process of socialization.  Moreover, the material feminists’ view (Jackson, 2001) endorses the current study that only patriarchy is not responsible for masculine traits but the wide experience of Pashtun in the prevailing social structure reinforces gender inequality and male dominant role in Pashtun society. The Pashtun tribal order, states  policies in colonial and post-colonial era, family disputes collectively reinforces gender inequality in Pashtun society. The indigenous socialization process also increases the burden of masculinity at an early age on male children and they are also culturally exposed to violence in the Pashtun cultural setting.

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